Lead Acid Battery Recycling

Recycling concepts for lead–acid batteries

R.D. Prengaman , A.H. Mirza , in Lead-Acid Batteries for Future Automobiles, 2017

20.4 Battery breaking

Typical automotive lead–acid batteries have the average composition shown in Table 20.one.

The pb–acrid battery recycling industry started replacing manual battery breaking systems by automated facilities in the 1980s [nine–xi], afterwards separating the spent automobile battery into its components by efficient gravity units. First, the batteries are loaded into a bombardment breaker, either a crusher with a molar-studded pulsate or a swinging-type hammer mill, where they are broken into pocket-size pieces for subsequent separation. Efficient separation and concentration of the sulfur-rich paste is achieved by screening in a rotating drum or a vibrating screen. The recovered paste is so pumped either into tanks for desulfurization or fed directly to a filter press. Introduction of AGM batteries into the recycling stream creates a trouble of the drinking glass fibres blinding the screens which so require significant backwashing .

Table 20.1. Typical contents of a lead–acid automotive battery [8]

Atomic number 82 grids and poles 25%
Lead paste 38%
  PbSOfour 50–threescore%
  PbO2 15–35%
  PbO 5–10%
  Metallic lead ii–five%
  Other 2–4%
Polypropylene cases 5%f
Separators, hard rubbers, etc. 10%
Sulfuric acid (virtually 15%) 22%

Metal lead, polyethylene and other plastic materials such as PVC, glass fabrics, etc. are separated in a gravity-based hydroflotation process. This process results in four intermediate components: (i) atomic number 82 paste for smelting; (two) metallic lead for melting or smelting; (3) PP to make pellets or to be reused by battery manufacturers; and (4) atomic number 82-contaminated plastic fraction which has to be disposed of or charged to a furnace, if permitted.

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RECYCLING | Lead–Acid Batteries: Electrochemical

Due south.Due east. Sloop , ... R. Clarke , in Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources, 2009

Lead manufactured in Due north America utilizes 88% recycled metal, which is the highest of all industrial base of operations metals. The technology used for mod lead–acid battery recycling is designed to meet the economic and environmental needs of an industrialized economy; the chief processes use thermal methods with a reducing agent to produce pb from spent batteries. Electrochemical methods have been explored to supplant thermal methods, including electrowinning atomic number 82 from a number of solutions of lead derived from acidic media and a reducing agent. Similar electrochemical methods may work in parallel with pyrometallurgical processing as fly ash treatment methods or for eventual environmental remediation procedures.

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Recycling and life cycle assessment of fuel cell materials

J.S. Cooper , ... C. Hartnig , in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane and Directly Methanol Fuel Cell Technology: Fundamentals and Performance of Low Temperature Fuel Cells, 2012

five.3.1 Recycling process availability

Infrastructures for fuel cell reuse and remanufacture are currently managed by private companies. For those units non reused or remanufactured, the success of recycling depends on the cost of retrieving and processing materials from products throughout an economy and, for each type of component and textile, the relation to the price of a component or material made from primary (or united nations-recycled) materials. Metals currently offer by far the greatest availability, and other fuel cell materials (single polymers, composites, insulation, reforming media, etc.) offer the greatest opportunity for improvement.

Starting with metals, Wernick and Themelis (1998) notation that metals can be recycled nearly indefinitely. Unlike polymer plastics and composites, the properties of metals can theoretically (however, often not economically) exist restored fully, regardless of their chemic or physical form in a given component. Thus, metals used in fuel cell stacks and the remainder-of-establish are recyclable at much higher rates than other materials. In fact, according to data from both the United States Geological Survey and the British Metals Recycling Clan, recycling rates in their respective study regions are quite similar with lead recycling leading at ~75% (dominated by lead-acrid battery recycling), followed by iron and steel, aluminum, copper and zinc recycling (Papp, 2005, Kumar et al., 2007). By mass, these metals tin dominate fuel cell systems when because both stacks and balance-of-institute and therefore offer substantial opportunity for fuel cell hardware recycling.

Of particular interest within the context of fuel cell metals recycling are steels, goad metals and metals used in batteries (for energy storage in the residuum-of-institute). Steel recycling offers mayhap the easiest path to achieving a high percentage of the mass of any fuel cell arrangement to exist recycled. This would apply, for example, to the housings of nigh stationary fuel cell systems (e.g. the standing enclosures effectually depression-pressure systems and pressure vessels for high-pressure systems) also equally to interconnects, flow field plates, necktie rods, pipe and heat exchangers in select designs.

Besides dominant on a mass ground, metals in fuel cell organization batteries may or may not offer an easy recycling selection. If based on lead-acid batteries (either conventional or valve regulated), wide scale recycling can nearly be guaranteed. In fact, the pb-acid battery industry recycled >99% of the available lead scrap from spent pb-acrid batteries from 1999 to 2003, according to a report issued past the Battery Quango International (BCI) in June 2005 and making the lead recycling rate ranked higher than that of whatsoever other recyclable material (Gabby, 2006). However, emerging technologies such every bit lithium ion batteries, nickel metal hydride batteries and ultra-capacitors offer improved energy storage performance and, should they be widely used in fuel cells systems, promise to either reduce recycling opportunities or spur the development of a new recycling infrastructure.

Unlike steel and the metals in batteries, catalyst family metals tin can be expected to be recycled on the footing of their value, as opposed to the dominance of their mass in fuel cell systems. For instance, platinum family catalyst metals are currently quite successfully recycled from today's vehicles (including both platinum and rhodium). Bhakta (1994) notes that in today's catalytic converters, the catalyst is housed in a stainless steel canister. Therefore, to recycle the catalyst, special machines have been adult to slit the canisters and remove the catalyst. Given an estimated increment in the amount of platinum group metals (PGMs) in fuel cells of 15 to over 200 times that of the catalytic converter for mobile fuel cell applications, information technology can be expected that similar technological development would follow broad-scale deployment of fuel cells based on PGMs (Cooper 2003, 2004a).

In contrast, recycling rates for nonmetallic fuel cell materials are much lower than metals throughout the earth, even when considering all aspects of recycling (reuse, remanufacturing, recycling and energy recovery). For the residuum-of-institute, although fuel storage hydrides, reforming media and insulation materials take been recycled in laboratory and/or pilot plant settings, substantial structure would be needed to support recycling for broad-scale fuel cell deployment. For the stack, menstruation field materials such every bit graphite, carbon composites and stainless steel can be expected to be chemically and physically altered during stack functioning in ways that will prohibit reuse and remanufacturing. There may, however, exist opportunities to use flow field materials in steel manufacturing or as insulation for fuel jail cell or other electronic products.

For the membrane-electrode assemblies a recycling process has been developed that starts from the separation of the different layers by an induced swelling of the membrane. Based on a non-organic solvent that does non decompose in the presence of the catalyst and air, the gas improvidence media and the catalyst layer can be separated from the membrane. After removal of strange cations, which are inserted in the membrane during operation, the polymer material'south performance is almost recovered to the initial level. Dissimilar results are observed for catalysts recovered from this recycling step; in a comparison to freshly prepared MEAs with original catalysts, MEAs fabricated from recycled samples do non give dorsum the original performance and represent articulate outliers in performance. From these results, a subsequent refining step of the catalyst is required in society to recycle the electrochemically active cloth. The individual procedure steps are explained in more than detail in Fig. 5.i: Starting from 60   kg MEA as the input one receives at the end of the process a total of 40   kg graphite material (GDL), 1.5   kg platinum pulverization (or other metals from the platinum group) and around 19   kg ionomer. The total worth of the project is around $fifty   000 resulting from the PGM powder plus an additional value of $eight–xx   000. The last contribution severely depends on the evaluation of the recovered ionomer; currently there is a lack of marketplace for these materials which, however, is likely to change once a broad market place introduction of fuel cell engineering science has been achieved and a market for recycled ionomer exists.

Recycling via a pyrometallurgical process focuses simply on the recovery of PGMs. In such a process, the consummate MEA (membrane, catalyst layer and diffusion media) are thermally converted, skipping a preceding step separating the individual components. Later on, PGMs are recovered from the slag. However, the thermal process bears the disadvantage of several fluorine compounds that might be released and have to be filtered carefully from the exhaust gases.

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Storage

In Handbook of Energy, 2013

Figures

Figure 22.1. Classification of the major energy storage technologies.

Source: Evans, Annette, Vladimir Strezov, Tim J. Evans. 2012. Assessment of utility energy storage options for increased renewable energy penetration, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 16, Issue 6, Pages 4141-4147.

Figure 22.two. Comparing of energy storage technologies past ability rating and discharge times.

Source: Adapted from Electric Power Research Establish, Electric Free energy Storage Technology Options: A White Paper Primer on Applications, Costs, and Benefits, Technical Update, December 2010, (Palo Alto, EPRI).

Effigy 22.3. Structure of a conventional flywheel.

Source: Marcelo Gustavo Molina (2010). Dynamic Modelling and Command Design of Avant-garde Free energy Storage for Power Organization Applications, Dynamic Modelling, Alisson 5. Brito (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-7619-68-8, InTech, Available from: http://world wide web.intechopen.com/books/dynamic-modelling/dynamic-modelling-and-control-design-of-advanced-energy-storage-for-ability-system-applications.

Effigy 22.iv. Specific energy and specific power of different battery types.

Source: Adapted from International Free energy Agency (IEA). 2011. Technology Roadmap: Electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, (Paris, IEA).

Figure 22.5. Full general scheme of a battery in the discharge mode (principal cell).

Source: Owens, B.B., P. Reale, B. Scrosati. 2009. Main Batteries Overview, In: Jürgen Garche, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevier), Pages 22-27.

Figure 22.6. Specific discharge free energy vs specific discharge power for different traction-relevant electrochemical storage systems.

Source: Gutmann, G. 2009. Electric Vehicle: Batteries, In: Editor-in-Chief: Jürgen Garche, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Ability Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevier), Pages 219-235.

Effigy 22.7. Cross-section of pb-acid battery.

Source: Sloop, S.E., K. Kotaich, T.W. Ellis, R. Clarke. 2009. Recycling Lead–Acid Batteries: Electrochemical, In: Jürgen Garche, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevier), Pages 179-187.

Figure 22.viii. The principles of operation and differences between the traditional pb–acid battery (a) and the soluble pb flow battery (b), a blazon of redox menstruation batteries (RFB).

Source: Pletcher, D., F.C. Walsh, R.G.A. Wills. 2009. Secondary Batteries – Lead – Acid Systems Menstruum Batteries, In: Jürgen Garche, Editor-in-Principal, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevier), Pages 745-749.

Figure 22.9. Principle of a redox menstruation battery (RFB), showing recirculation of an electrolyte through a cell compartment–tank loop with jail cell divided by a cation-exchange membrane. The cell is shown under charge.

Source: Watt-Smith, Grand.J., R.G.A. Wills, F.C. Walsh. 2009. Secondary Batteries – Flow Systems Overview, In: Jürgen Garche, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevier), Pages 438-443.

Figure 22.10. Operating principle of a sealed Ni–Cd cell.

Source: Shukla, A.K., S. Venugopalan, B. Hariprakash. 2009. Secondary Batteries – Nickel Systems Nickel–Cadmium: Overview, In: Jürgen Garche, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevie), Pages 452-458.

Effigy 22.11. Operating principle of a sealed Ni–MH cell.

Source: Hariprakash, B., A.K. Shukla, Due south. Venugoplan. 2009. Secondary Batteries – Nickel Systems Nickel–Metal Hydride: Overview, In: Jürgen Garche, Editor-in-Primary, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevier), Pages 494-501.

Effigy 22.12. Cantankerous-department of a cylindrical Li-ion cell.

Source: Pistoia, Gianfranco. 2009. Battery Operated Devices and Systems, (Amsterdam, Elsevier).

Figure 22.13. Cross section model of cylindrical zinc–alkaline manganese oxide battery.

Source: Takamura, T. 2009. Primary Batteries – Aqueous Systems Alkali metal Manganese–Zinc, In: Jürgen Garche, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevier), Pages 28-42.

Figure 22.14. Typical cross-sectional view of a button-type zinc–air battery. Courtesy of Panasonic Corporation Free energy Company.

Source: Arai, H., M. Hayashi, Primary Batteries – Aqueous Systems Zinc–Air, In: Jürgen Garche, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevier), Pages 55-61.

Figure 22.15. Construction details of cylindrical Leclanché cell with paste separator and asphalt seal.

Source: Kordesch, K., W. Taucher-Mautner. 2009. Master Batteries – Aqueous Systems Leclanché and Zinc–Carbon, In: Jürgen Garche, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevier), Pages 43-54.

Figure 22.xvi. Simple electrostatic capacitor formed past separating two parallel conductors by a altitude d. A dielectric material is commonly placed between the conductors to increase the capacitance.

Source: Miller, J.R. 2009. Capacitors Overview, In: Jürgen Garche, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Ability Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevier), Pages 587-599.

Effigy 22.17. Electrochemical capacitor (EC) formed by placing two conductors in an electrolyte and applying a voltage (left). Accuse separation occurs at the solid–liquid interface of both electrodes and persists after the voltage source is removed, creating two double-layer capacitors in series.

Source: Miller, J.R. 2009. Capacitors Overview, In: Jürgen Garche, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Power Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevier), Pages 587-599.

Figure 22.18. Cutaway cartoon of a multicell electrochemical capacitor (EC) constructed using bipolar design. Hither capacitor cells are stacked face-to-face to form a cake that meets the application voltages. Blocks are and so parallel-connected to run across the energy requirements. Cartoon courtesy of ELIT Visitor.

Source: Miller, J.R. 2009. Capacitors Overview, In: Jürgen Garche, Editor-in-Chief, Encyclopedia of Electrochemical Ability Sources, (Amsterdam, Elsevier), Pages 587-599.

Figure 22.19. Schematic view of a super capacitor.

Source: Marcelo Gustavo Molina (2010). Dynamic Modelling and Command Design of Advanced Energy Storage for Power System Applications, Dynamic Modelling, Alisson V. Brito (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-7619-68-8, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/dynamic-modelling/dynamic-modelling-and-control-design-of-advanced-free energy-storage-for-power-organization-applications.

Effigy 22.20. Basic structure of a superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) device.

Source: Marcelo Gustavo Molina (2010). Dynamic Modelling and Control Design of Advanced Free energy Storage for Power System Applications, Dynamic Modelling, Alisson V. Brito (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-7619-68-8, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/dynamic-modelling/dynamic-modelling-and-control-pattern-of-advanced-free energy-storage-for-power-organization-applications.

Figure 22.21. Source: Classes of materials that can be used every bit stage alter materials (PCMs) and their typical range of melting temperature and melting enthalpy.

Source: Cabeza, Fifty.F. 2912. 3.07 - Thermal Free energy Storage, In: Editor-in-Chief: Ali Sayigh, Comprehensive Renewable Energy, (Oxford, Elsevier), Pages 211-253.

Figure 22.22. A 2.5-MWhr thermal energy storage system with binary molten-salt fluid.

Source: U.s. Department of Energy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Parabolic Trough Thermal Energy Storage Engineering science, <http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/thermal_energy_storage.html>.

Figure 22.23. Types of underground compressed air storage: (a) storage in salt cavity, (b) rock storage with compensating surface reservoir, and (c) aquifer storage.

Source: Sørensen, Bent. 2011. Renewable Energy (Fourth Edition), (Boston, Bookish Press).

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Direction of used lead acid battery in Cathay: Secondary pb industry progress, policies and bug

Eleven Tian , ... Tieyong Zuo , in Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2014

four.three High proportion of outdated technologies

The secondary lead industry in China is in the advanced stage with advanced technology co-existing with traditional applied science. Building a regular lead-acid battery recycling plant needs an investment of at least 200 million RMB, of which the cost of dismantling machinery will be 50 meg RMB, the cost of smelting furnace will be lx meg RMB, the cost of dust, water treatment devices will exist 60 million RMB and the cost of land and plant construction also be taken into account (Ding, 2012a,b). Still, illegal recycling plants, like a small workshop with not more than 10 workers can recycle lead-acid batteries using artificial dismantling, uncomplicated furnaces, and the total cost is of this is less than 100,000 CNY (Ding, 2012a,b). Eventually, part of these plants transfer to secret product in the environmental rectification, and with inadequate supervision of local government, illegal product enterprises carry on all-encompassing production which leads to the inundation of underground illegal production. It is difficult for formal legal smelters to compete with illegal smelters at the same cost of raw materials. This leads to the lack of raw materials for legal enterprises (Hu, 2013).

The secondary lead plants with capacity less than 150   kton mainly apply transmission dismantling, bookkeeping for 60% to 70% in the industry. Many plants use direct fired reverberatory furnace, cupola and other outdated technologies, and some even utilise the original smelting kiln with no ecology protection facilities (Raghupathy and Chaturvedi, 2013). In Red china, the energy consumption of general secondary pb enterprises is 500 to 600   kg of standard coal/ton of lead (Shang, 2006), which is 3 times college than foreign plants and the consumption of water is approximately 5   g3/t of lead (Smaniotto et al., 2009). In 2006, information technology was studied that a lower lead recycling rate was only 0.312   t/t, which meant that about 70% of erstwhile lead scrap is not recycled based on official statistics (Mao et al., 2006). College lead emissions was also 0.324   t/t, which means that nearly 33% of the lead inputs used in the LAB arrangement was lost into the surround in China (Mao et al., 2009). In 2013, nearly 3   MT of waste matter batteries was candy in the recycling phase and the total recovery charge per unit was nearly 90%. Nearly 0.2   MT of atomic number 82 and other metal elements were lost in this process, with an annual output of waste been about 600   kton coupled with serious lead vapor and lead dust (Guo, 2013).

Tokyo and Osaka in Japan and metropolitan cities in other adult countries have congenital secondary atomic number 82 plants (Shi, 2012). Due to comprehensive laws and effective direction, their pollution is far less serious than in China. According to U.South. statistics in 2002, pb emissions in the secondary pb industry was only 46   t, ranking sixth in all kinds of polluting industries and accounting for simply 3.7% of total lead emissions. Therefore, every bit long as reasonable regulations on the relevant manufacture are implemented, this environmental phenomenon can be solved (Ding, 2012a,b; Qu, 2012).

To enable the rapid evolution and growth of advanced technology enterprises, the state should use tax, credit, funding, prices, bonuses and other economic tools to support these enterprises. The regime should be encouraged to build business-oriented, market-oriented and university-industry collaboration technological innovation system (Li, 2011). Currently, some secondary atomic number 82 enterprises in China already have globe-course recycling technologies and can ensure clean and efficient recycling of resources. The challenge in the future volition be generalizing environment-friendly and automation technologies into the secondary lead industry throughout the land. The construction of secondary lead industry standardization system should be promoted. Secondary lead industry standards should be ready, revised and publicized combined with the country'due south overall requirements and industry's demands. Country ministries have begun to emulate foreign countries to formulate the "Best Available Technology Guide" of recycling technologies. Information technology is one of the important principles of the NDRC pick of "Urban Mining" sit-in bases. This tin also ensure the promotion of advanced technologies.

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Review on clean recovery of discarded/spent pb-acid battery and trends of recycled products

Mingyang Li , ... R.Vasant Kumar , in Journal of Power Sources, 2019

five Trends in recovery of spent lead paste from 1987 to 2018 past using bibliometric assay

Science commendation index (SCI) from the Web of Science database is the widely used database for search and analysis of scientific publications [110]. Bibliometric indicators including enquiry topic, titles, keywords, journals, twelvemonth of publication, authors and publication countries have been frequently used to clarify the research trends [111,112]. This review mainly covers the terminal x years of findings on environmentally-friendly processes operating at almost ambience temperatures for the recovery of spent lead-acid batteries. In order to know the research trends in spent pb-acid battery recycling in contempo years, the bibliometric assay of this field in the terminal thirty years is studied. The data used in this written report is based on the database of the SCI published by Thomson Reuters Web of Scientific discipline. ''Spent lead-acid bombardment paste OR spent atomic number 82 paste OR recovery of pb-acrid battery'' is used as the search keywords from 1987 to 2018. Then all publications related with these themes are downloaded from the Science Citation Alphabetize.

Fig. 7(a) shows the publications related with the topic of spent lead-acid battery paste or spent lead paste or recovery of lead-acid battery in the past 30 years. An increasing number of researchers is an apparent trend in the recovery of spent lead paste especially in the last 5 years. Researchers are striving to develop a greenish hydrometallurgical procedure that can potentially to eliminate atomic number 82 process pollution. Fig. 7(b) shows the publications from different countries in the past thirty years. Communist china has fabricated the near contributions to the publications in the field of lead recovery. This is mainly considering pb-acid battery product in China occupies a major function of the total production throughout the world [113,114], and the consequent concern about environmental issues is too increasing. More than and more researchers focus on the dark-green recovery process of spent LABs.

Fig. 7

Fig. 7. The number of the publications in the past 30 years (a), and the number of the publications from different countries in the latest 30 years (b), and different methods of the hydrometallurgical procedure: (c) distributions of dissimilar types of hydrometallurgical routes; and (d) distributions of different types of recovered products in hydrometallurgical process.

The hydrometallurgical processes in all the publications are divided into dissimilar categories including leaching-electrowining, organic acrid leaching-calcination, alkaline leaching-crystallization processes. Fig. 7(c) shows that the organic-acid leaching followed by calcination processes are the most focused technologies in the hydrometallurgical procedure (36.8%). This is mainly considering the recovered product of these processes is leady oxide which could be directly reused as the agile materials of the new lead-acrid battery manufacturing. And the organic acrid is less harmful or corrosive to health of operators and equipment compared with the strong mineral acid or alkali. The chemic conversion routes and leaching-electrowining processes account for 34.5% and 24.1% of the hydrometallurgical processes, respectively. Due to the fact that the chemical conversion routes consist of many contained processes, little attention has been paid to a specific process. On the contrary, the leaching-electrowinng processes have attracted more attention, which indicates that electrowinng processes notwithstanding have attractive advantages such every bit high recovery rate of lead and high-purity of metallic pb. At the same fourth dimension, compared with the traditional leaching-electrowinng process, the free energy consumptions of the proposed new electrowinng processes in the latest studies are as well significantly reduced.

Fig. 7(d) shows the various recovered products of different hydrometallurgical processes. Metallic lead accounts for 27.viii% of the recovered products, which is mainly due to the studies on the electrowining process. Meanwhile, leady oxide (PbO/Pb) (35.4%) and lead oxide (22.viii%) occupy a large proportion of the recovered products (58.2%). In the recent years, the recovered products of leady oxides has attracted most attention. These new routes greatly shorten the pathway from the spent pb-acid battery to the regeneration of new lead-acid bombardment, which may be the tendency of recycling spent pb LAB in time to come.

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A critical review on secondary atomic number 82 recycling technology and its prospect

Wei Zhang , ... R. Vasant Kumar , in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016

two.2 Secondary lead

Secondary lead mainly refers to the lead recovered from discarded atomic number 82 acrid battery, lead dust, lead pipe, lead drinking glass of liquid crystal display (LCD), and slag from lead smelting process. Among the secondary lead resource, the spent atomic number 82 acid bombardment was listed as relatively easier for collection and transportation. Generally estimated, spent/discarded pb acid batteries are the dominant resource of secondary lead, approximately bookkeeping for more than than 85% of the total amount of secondary lead [5] . Thus, this commodity mainly reviews the various spent lead acrid battery recycling methods used globally.

The reason for the enormous increase of secondary lead production relates to the continuously growing number of automobile vehicles and electric bicycles, which is much more than evident in developing countries, especially in Prc, which past 2013 has accounted for 40% of the world total lead [10,eleven]. As listed in Fig. 3, the E-bike sales have already been a favorable option for urban and rural commuters for its convenience and depression cost compared to cars. It is estimated that the worldwide lead-acid batteries shipment would increment more than or less continuously by a pregnant margin by 2017 as shown in Fig. iv despite curt term recessionary factors. This suggests that the increasing output of pb-acid batteries would accelerate the lead consumption worldwide. As shown in Fig. 5, a precipitous increment of lead consumption for batteries production was observed from 1960 to 2012. This indicates great economic opportunity as well as challenges for efficient and low-cost secondary lead recycling technology.

Fig. 3

Fig. iii. The amount of Due east-bike sales and other types of bicycle in China [10].

Fig. 4

Fig. iv. The worldwide lead-acid batteries shipment and its forecast [12].

Fig. 5

Fig. 5. The lead consumption for batteries betwixt 1960 and 2012 [9].

Furthermore, the amount of secondary lead used for the lead-acrid batteries manufacture increased from 0.five million tons in 2000 to over 3 million tons in 2010 and will account for over 8 million tons in the next several years [12]. The increasing amount of lead-acid batteries would consequence in more than spent lead-acid batteries' aggregating. In gild to eliminate the potential environmental pollution caused by secondary lead, more efforts should be made to improve the existing lead recycling infrastructure and to solve the technical challenges for the replacement of traditional smelting method [13–16].

Overall, the secondary lead has already become the major source of global lead supply, which constitutes a significant percentage of the atomic number 82 market. Due to the rapid increase of pb acid batteries production and consumption, the calibration of secondary lead recycling would continue to increase dramatically in coming years. Such facts enhance the importance of enquiry and evolution on secondary atomic number 82 recycling from spent pb acid battery, not only in terms of environmental protection simply likewise from the perspectives of resource conservation and economical growth.

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